From: Valerie Aurora <vaurora@redhat.com>
To: Alexander Viro <viro@zeniv.linux.org.uk>
Cc: Miklos Szeredi <miklos@szeredi.hu>, Jan Blunck <jblunck@suse.de>,
       Christoph Hellwig <hch@infradead.org>, linux-kernel@vger.kernel.org,
       linux-fsdevel@vger.kernel.org, Valerie Aurora <vaurora@redhat.com>
Subject: [PATCH 17/38] union-mount: Union mounts documentation
Date: Fri, 25 Jun 2010 12:05:07 -0700
Message-Id: <1277492728-11446-18-git-send-email-vaurora@redhat.com>
In-Reply-To: <1277492728-11446-1-git-send-email-vaurora@redhat.com>
References: <1277492728-11446-1-git-send-email-vaurora@redhat.com>
Sender: linux-kernel-owner@vger.kernel.org
Content-Length: 31011
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Document design and implementation of union mounts (a.k.a. writable
overlays).
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+Union mounts (a.k.a. writable overlays)
+=======================================
+
+This document describes the architecture and current status of union
+mounts, also known as writable overlays.
+
+In this document:
+ - Overview of union mounts
+ - Terminology
+ - VFS implementation
+ - Locking strategy
+ - VFS/file system interface
+ - Userland interface
+ - NFS interaction
+ - Status
+ - Contributing to union mounts
+
+Overview
+========
+
+A union mount layers one read-write file system over one or more
+read-only file systems, with all writes going to the writable file
+system.  The namespace of both file systems appears as a combined
+whole to userland, with files and directories on the writable file
+system covering up any files or directories with matching pathnames on
+the read-only file system.  The read-write file system is the
+"topmost" or "upper" file system and the read-only file systems are
+the "lower" file systems.  A few use cases:
+
+- Root file system on CD with writes saved to hard drive (LiveCD)
+- Multiple virtual machines with the same starting root file system
+- Cluster with NFS mounted root on clients
+
+Most if not all of these problems could be solved with a COW block
+device or a clustered file system (include NFS mounts).  However, for
+some use cases, sharing is more efficient and better performing if
+done at the file system namespace level.  COW block devices only
+increase their divergence as time goes on, and a fully coherent
+writable file system is unnecessary synchronization overhead if no
+other client needs to see the writes.
+
+What union mounts are not
+-------------------------
+
+Union mounts are not a general-purpose unioning file system.  They do
+not provide a generic "union of namespaces" operation for an arbitrary
+number of file systems.  Many interesting features can be implemented
+with a generic unioning facility: dynamic insertion and removal of
+branches, write policies based on space available, online upgrade,
+etc.  Some unioning file systems that do this are UnionFS and AUFS.
+
+Terminology
+===========
+
+The main physical metaphor for union mounts is that a writable file
+system is mounted "on top" of a read-only file system.  Lookups start
+at the "topmost" read-write file system and travel "down" to the
+"bottom" read-only file system only if no blocking entry exists on the
+top layer.
+
+Topmost layer: The read-write file system.  Lookups begin here.
+
+Bottom layer: The read-only file system.  Lookups end here.
+
+Path: Combination of the vfsmount and dentry structure.
+
+Follow down: Given a path from the top layer, find the corresponding
+path on the bottom layer.
+
+Follow up: Given a path from the bottom layer, find the corresponding
+path on the top layer.
+
+Whiteout: A directory entry in the top layer that prevents lookups
+from travelling down to the bottom layer.  Created on unlink()/rmdir()
+if a corresponding directory entry exists in the bottom layer.
+
+Opaque flag: A flag on a directory in the top layer that prevents
+lookups of entries in this directory from travelling down to the
+bottom layer (unless there is an explicit fallthru entry allowing that
+for a particular entry).  Set on creation of a directory that replaces
+a whiteout, and after a directory copyup.
+
+Fallthru: A directory entry which allows lookups to "fall through" to
+the bottom layer for that exact directory entry.  This serves as a
+placeholder for directory entries from the bottom layer during
+readdir().  Fallthrus override opaque flags.
+
+File copyup: Create a file on the top layer that has the same metadata
+and contents as the file with the same pathname on the bottom layer.
+
+Directory copyup: Copy up the visible directory entries from the
+bottom layer as fallthrus in the matching top layer directory.  Mark
+the directory opaque to avoid unnecessary negative lookups on the
+bottom layer.
+
+Examples
+========
+
+What happens when I...
+
+- creat() /newfile -> creates on topmost layer
+- unlink() /oldfile -> creates a whiteout on topmost layer
+- Edit /existingfile -> copies up to top layer at open(O_WR) time
+- truncate /existingfile -> copies up to topmost layer + N bytes if specified
+- touch()/chmod()/chown()/etc. -> copies up to topmost layer
+- mkdir() /newdir -> creates on topmost layer
+- rmdir() /olddir -> creates a whiteout on topmost layer
+- mkdir() /olddir after above -> creates on topmost layer w/ opaque flag
+- readdir() /shareddir -> copies up entries from bottom layer as fallthrus
+- link() /oldfile /newlink -> copies up /oldfile, creates /newlink on topmost layer
+- symlink() /oldfile /symlink -> nothing special
+- rename() /oldfile /newfile -> copies up /oldfile to /newfile on top layer
+- rename() /olddir /newdir -> EXDEV
+- rename() /topmost_only_dir /topmost_only_dir2 -> success
+
+Getting to a root file system with union mounts:
+
+- Mount the base read-only file system as the root file system
+- Mount the read-only file system again on /newroot
+- Mount the read-write layer on /newroot:
+   # mount -o union /dev/sda /newroot
+- pivot_root to /newroot
+- Start init
+
+See scripts/pivot.sh in the UML devkit linked to from:
+
+http://valerieaurora.org/union/
+
+VFS implementation
+==================
+
+Union mounts are implemented as an integral part of the VFS, rather
+than as a VFS client file system (i.e., a stacked file system like
+unionfs or ecryptfs).  Implementing unioning inside the VFS eliminates
+the need for duplicate copies of VFS data structures, unnecessary
+indirection, and code duplication, but requires very maintainable,
+low-to-zero overhead code.  Union mounts require no change to file
+systems serving as the read-only layer, and requires some minor
+support from file systems serving as the read-write layer.  File
+systems that want to be the writable layer must implement the new
+->whiteout() and ->fallthru() inode operations, which create special
+dummy directory entries.
+
+The union mounts code must accomplish the following major tasks:
+
+1) Pass lookups through to the lower level file system.
+2) Copy files and directories up to the topmost layer when written.
+3) Create whiteouts and fallthrus as necessary.
+
+VFS objects and union mounts
+----------------------------
+
+First, some VFS basics:
+
+The VFS allows multiple mounts of the same file system.  For example,
+/dev/sda can be mounted at /usr and also at /mnt.  The same file
+system can be mounted read-only at one point and read-write at
+another.  Each of these mounts has its own vfsmount data structure in
+the kernel.  However, each underlying file system has exactly one
+in-kernel superblock structure no matter how many times it is mounted.
+All the separate vfsmounts for the same file system reference the same
+superblock data structure.
+
+Directory entries are cached by the VFS in dentry structures.  The VFS
+keeps one dentry structure for each file or directory in a file
+system, no matter how many times it is mounted.  Each dentry
+represents only one element of a path name.  When the VFS looks up a
+pathname (e.g., "/sbin/init"), the result is combination of vfsmount
+and dentry.  This <mnt,dentry> pair is usually stored in a kernel
+structure named "path", which is simply two pointers, one to the
+vfsmount and one to the dentry.  A "struct path" is this structure; a
+pathname is a string like "/etc/fstab".
+
+In union mounts, a file system can only be the topmost layer for one
+union mount.  A file system can be part of multiple union mounts if it
+is a read-only layer.  So dentries in the read-only layers can be part
+of multiple unions, while a dentry in the read-write layer can only be
+part of one unin.
+
+union_dir structure
+---------------------
+
+The first job of union mounts is to map directories from the topmost
+layer to directories with the same pathname in the lower layer.  That
+is, given the <mnt,dentry> pair for a directory pathname in the
+topmost layer, we need to find all the <mnt,dentry> pairs for the
+directory with the same pathname in the lower layer.  We do this with
+a singly linked list rooted in the dentry from the topmost layer.  The
+linked list is the union_dir structure:
+
+/*
+ * The union_dir structure.  Basically just a singly-linked list with
+ * a pointer to the referenced dentry, whose head is d_union_dir in
+ * the dentry of the topmost directory.  We can't link this list
+ * purely through list elements in the dentry because lower layer
+ * dentries can be part of multiple union stacks.  However, the
+ * topmost dentry is only part of one union stack.  So we point at the
+ * lower layer dentries through a linked list rooted in the topmost
+ * dentry.
+ */
+struct union_dir {
+	struct path u_this;		/* this is me */
+	struct union_dir *u_lower;	/* this is what I overlay */
+};
+
+This structure is flexible enough to support an arbitrary number of
+layers of unioned file systems. (The current code is tested only with
+two layers but should allow more layers.) Since there can be more than
+two layers, this section will talk about mapping "upper" directories
+to "lower" directories, instead of "topmost" directories to "bottom"
+directories.
+
+At the time of a union mount, we allocate a union_dir structure to link
+the root directory of the upper layer to the root directory of the
+lower layer and put the pointer to it in the d_union_dir field of
+struct dentry:
+
+struct dentry {
+[...]
+#ifdef CONFIG_UNION_MOUNT
+	struct union_dir *d_union_dir;	/* head of union stack */
+#endif
+
+
+Traversing the union stack
+--------------------------
+
+The set of union_dir structures referring to a particular pathname are
+called collectively the union stack for that directory.  Only lookup
+needs to traverse the union stack - walk down the list of paths
+beginning with the topmost.  This is open-coded:
+
+static int __lookup_union(struct nameidata *nd, struct qstr *name,
+			  struct path *topmost)
+{
+[...]
+	/* new_ud is the tail of the list of union dirs for this dentry */
+	struct union_dir **next_ud = &topmost->dentry->d_union_dir;
+[...]
+	/* Go through each dir underlying the parent, looking for a match */
+	for (ud = nd->path.dentry->d_union_dir; ud != NULL; ud = ud->u_lower) {
+[...]
+		next_ud = &(*next_ud)->u_lower;
+	}
+}
+
+Code paths
+----------
+
+Union mounts modify the following key code paths in the VFS:
+
+- mount()/umount()
+- Pathname lookup
+- Any path that modifies an existing file
+
+Mount
+-----
+
+Union mounts are created in two steps:
+
+1. Mount the read-only layer file systems read-only in the usual
+manner, all on the same mountpoint.  Submounts are permitted as long
+as they are also read-only and not shared (part of a mount propagation
+group).
+
+2. Mount the top layer with the "-o union" option at the same
+mountpoint.  All read-only file systems mounted at this mountpoint
+will be included in the union mount.
+
+The bottom layers must be read-only and the top layer must be
+read-write and support whiteouts and fallthrus.  A file system that
+supports whiteouts and fallthrus indicates this by setting the
+MS_WHITEOUT flag in the superblock.  Currently, the top layer is
+forced to "noatime" to avoid a copyup on every access of a file.
+Supporting atime with the current infrastructure would require a
+copyup on every open().  The "relatime" option would be equally
+efficient if the atime is the same or more recent than the mtime/ctime
+for every object on the read-only file system, and if the 24-hour
+timeout on relatime was disabled.  However, this is probably not
+worthwhile for the majority of union mount use cases.
+
+File systems can only be union mounted at their root directories.
+Without this restriction, some VFS operations must always do a
+union_lookup() - requiring a global lock - in order to find out if a
+path is potentially unioned.  With this restriction, we can tell if a
+path is potentially unioned by checking a flag in the vfsmount.
+
+pivot_root() to a union mounted file system is supported.  The
+recommended way to get to a union mounted root file system is to boot
+with the read-only mount as the root file system, construct the union
+mount on an entirely new mount, and pivot_root() to the new union
+mount root.  Attempting to union mount the root file system later in
+boot will result in covering other file systems, e.g., /proc, which
+isn't permitted in the current code and is a bad idea anyway.
+
+Hard read-only file systems
+---------------------------
+
+Union mounts require the lower layer of the file system to be
+read-only.  However, in Linux, any individual file system may be
+mounted at multiple places in the namespace, and a file system can be
+changed from read-only to read-write while still mounted.  Thus, simply
+checking that the bottom layer is read-only at the time the writable
+overlay is mounted over it is pointless, since at any time the bottom
+layer may become read-write.
+
+We have to guarantee that a file system will be read-only for as long
+as it is the bottom layer of a union mount.  To do this, we track the
+number of hard read-only users of a file system in its VFS superblock
+structure.  When we union mount a writable overlay over a file system,
+we increment its read-only user count.  The file system can only be
+mounted read-write if its read-only users count is zero.
+
+Todo:
+
+- Support hard read-only NFS mounts.  See discussion here:
+
+  http://markmail.org/message/3mkgnvo4pswxd7lp
+
+Pathname lookup
+---------------
+
+Pathname lookup in a unioned directory traverses down the union stack
+for the parent directory, looking up each pathname element in each
+layer of the file system (according to the rules of whiteouts,
+fallthrus, and opaque flags).  At mount time, the union stack for the
+root directory of the file system is created, and the union stack
+creation for every other unioned directory in the file system is
+boot-strapped using the already-existing union stack of the
+directory's parent.  In order to simplify the code greatly, every
+visible directory on the lower file system is required to have a
+matching directory on the upper file system.  This matching directory
+is created during pathname lookup if does not already exist.
+Therefore, each unioned directory is the child of another unioned
+directory (or is the root directory of the file system).
+
+The actual union lookup function is called in the following code
+paths:
+
+do_lookup()->do_union_lookup()->lookup_union()->__lookup_union()
+lookup_hash()->lookup_union()->__lookup_union()
+
+__lookup_union() is where the rules of whiteouts, fallthrus, and
+opaque flags are actually implemented.  __lookup_union() returns
+either the first visible dentry, or a negative dentry from the topmost
+file system if no matching dentry exists.  If it finds a directory, it
+looks up any potential matching lower layer directories.  If it finds
+a lower layer directory, it first creates the topmost dir if necessary
+via union_create_topmost_dir(), and then calls union_add_dir() to
+append the lower directory to the end of the union stack.
+
+Note that not all directories in a union mount are unioned, only those
+with matching directories on the lower layer.  The macro
+IS_DIR_UNIONED() is a cheap, constant time way to check if a directory
+is unioned, while IS_MNT_UNION() checks if the entire mount is unioned
+(and therefore whether the directory in question is potentially
+unioned).
+
+Currently, lookup of a negative dentry in a unioned directory requires
+a lookup in every directory in the union stack every time it is looked
+up.  We could avoid subsequent lookups by adding a negative union
+cache entry, exactly the way negative dentries are cached.
+
+File copyup
+-----------
+
+Any system call that alters the data or metadata of a file on the
+bottom layer, or creates or changes a hard link to it will trigger a
+copyup of the target file from the lower layer to the topmost layer
+
+ - open(O_WRITE | O_RDWR | O_APPEND)
+ - truncate()/open(O_TRUNC)
+ - link()
+ - rename()
+ - chmod()
+ - chown()/lchown()
+ - utimes()
+ - setxattr()/lsetxattr()
+
+Copyup of a file due to open(O_WRITE) has already occurred when:
+
+ - write()
+ - ftruncate()
+ - writable mmap()
+
+The following system calls will fail on an fd opened O_RDONLY:
+
+ - fchmod()
+ - fchown()
+ - fsetxattr()
+ - futimensat()
+
+Contrary to common sense, the above system calls are defined to
+succeed on O_RDONLY fds.  The idea seems to be that the
+O_RDONLY/O_RDWR/O_WRITE flags only apply to the actual file data, not
+to any form of metadata (times, owner, mode, or even extended
+attributes).  Applications making these system calls on O_RDONLY fds
+are correct according to the standard and work on non-union-mounts.
+They will need to be rewritten (O_RDONLY -> O_RDWR) to work on union
+mounts.  We suspect this usage is uncommon.
+
+This deviation from standard is due to technical limitations of the
+union mount implementation.  Specifically, we would need to replace an
+open file descriptor from the lower layer with an open file descriptor
+for a file with matching pathname and contents on the upper layer,
+which is difficult to do.  We avoid this in other system calls by
+doing the copyup before the file is opened.  Unionfs doesn't encounter
+this problem because it creates a dummy file struct which redirects or
+fans out operations to the struct files for the underlying file
+systems.
+
+From an application's point of view, the result of an in-kernel file
+copyup is the logical equivalent of another application updating the
+file via the rename() pattern: creat() a new file, copy the data over,
+make changes the copy, and rename() over the old version.  Any
+existing open file descriptors for that file (including those in the
+same application) refer to a now invisible object that used to have
+the same pathname.  Only opens that occur after the copyup will see
+updates to the file.
+
+Permission checks
+-----------------
+
+We want to be sure we have the correct permissions to actually succeed
+in a system call before copying a file up to avoid unnecessary IO.  At
+present, the permission check for a single system call may be spread
+out over many hundreds of lines of code (e.g., open()).  In order to
+check permissions, we occasionally need to determine if there is a
+writable overlay on top of this inode.  This requires a full path, but
+often we only have the inode at this point.  In particular,
+inode_permission() returns EROFS if the inode is on a read-only file
+system, which is the wrong answer if there is a writable overlay
+mounted on top of it.
+
+The current solution is to split out the file-system-wide permission
+checks from the per-inode permission checks.  inode_permission()
+becomes:
+
+sb_permission()
+__inode_permission()
+
+inode_permission() calls sb_permission() and __inode_permission() on
+the same path.  We create path_permission() which calls
+sb_permission() on the parent directory from the top layer, and
+__inode_permission() on the target on the lower layer.  This gets us
+the correct write permissions consdering that the file will be copied
+up.
+
+Todo:
+
+  - Currently, we don't deal with differing directory permissions at
+    different levels of the stack.  This is a bug.
+
+Impact on non-union kernels and mounts
+--------------------------------------
+
+Union-related data structures, extra fields, and function calls are
+#ifdef'd out at the function/macro level with CONFIG_UNION_MOUNT in
+nearly all cases (see fs/union.h).
+
+Todo:
+
+ - Do performance tests
+
+Locking strategy
+================
+
+The current union mount locking strategy is based on the following
+rules:
+
+* The lower layer file system is always read-only
+* The topmost file system is always read-write
+  => A file system can never a topmost and lower layer at the same time
+
+Additionally, the topmost layer may only be mounted exactly once.
+Don't think of the topmost layer as a separate independent file
+system; when it is part of a union mount, it is only a file system in
+conjunction with the read-only bottom layer.  The read-only bottom
+layer is an independent file system in and of itself and can be
+mounted elsewhere, including as the bottom layer for another union
+mount.
+
+Thus, we may define a stable locking order in terms of top layer and
+bottom layer locks, since a top layer is never a bottom layer and a
+bottom layer is never a top layer.  Another simplifying assumption is
+that all directories in a pathname exist on the top layer, as they are
+created step-by-step during lookup.  This prevents us from ever having
+to walk backwards up the path creating directory entries, which can
+get complicated.  By implication, parent directories paths during any
+operation (rename(), unlink(),etc.) are from the top layer.  Dentries
+for directories from the bottom layer are only ever seen or used by
+the lookup code.
+
+The two major problems we avoid with the above rules are:
+
+Lock ordering: Imagine two union stacks with the same two file
+systems: A mounted over B, and B mounted over A.  Sometimes locks on
+objects in both A and B will have to be held simultanously.  What
+order should they be acquired in?  Simply acquiring them from top to
+bottom will create a lock-ordering problem - one thread acquires lock
+on object from A and then tries for a lock on object from B, while
+another thread grabs the lock on object from B and then waits for the
+lock on object from A.  Some other lock ordering must be defined.
+
+Movement/change/disappearance of objects on multiple layers: A variety
+of nasty corner cases arise when more than one layer is changing at
+the same time.  Changes in the directory topology and their effect on
+inheritance are of special concern.  Al Viro's canonical email on the
+subject:
+
+http://lkml.indiana.edu/hypermail/linux/kernel/0802.0/0839.html
+
+We don't try to solve any of these cases, just avoid them in the first
+place.
+
+Todo: Prevent top layer from being mounted more than once.
+
+Cross-layer interactions
+------------------------
+
+The VFS code simultaneously holds references to and/or modifies
+objects from both the top and bottom layers in the following cases:
+
+Path lookup:
+
+Grabs i_mutex on bottom layer while holding i_mutex on top layer
+directory inode.
+
+File copyup:
+
+Holds i_mutex on the parent directory from the top layer while copying
+up file from lower layer.
+
+link():
+
+File copyup of target while holding i_mutex on parent directory on top
+layer.  Followed by a normal link() operation.
+
+rename():
+
+Holds s_vfs_rename_mutex on the top layer, i_mutex of the source's
+parent dir (top layer), and i_mutex of the target's parent dir (also
+top layer) while looking up and copying the bottom layer target and
+also creating the whiteout.
+
+Notes on rename():
+
+First, renaming of directories returns EXDEV.  It's not at all
+reasonable to recursively copy directory trees and userspace has to
+handle this case anyway.  An exception is rename() of directories that
+exist only on the topmost layer; this succeeds.
+
+Rename involves three steps on a union mount: (1) copyup of the file
+from the bottom layer, (2) rename of the new top-layer copy to the
+target in the usual manner, (3) creation of a whiteout covering the
+source of the rename.
+
+Directory copyup:
+
+Directory entries are copied up on the first readdir().  We hold the
+top layer directory i_mutex throughout and sequentially acquire and
+drop the i_mutex for each lower layer directory.
+
+VFS-fs interface
+================
+
+Read-only layer: No support necessary other than enforcement of really
+really read-only semantics (done by VFS for local file systems).
+
+Writable layer: Must implement two new inode operations:
+
+int (*whiteout) (struct inode *, struct dentry *, struct dentry *);
+int (*fallthru) (struct inode *, struct dentry *);
+
+And set the MS_WHITEOUT flag to indicate support of these operations.
+
+Todo:
+
+- Return inode of underlying file in d_ino in readdir()
+- Implement whiteouts and fallthrus in ext3
+- Implement whiteouts and fallthrus in btrfs
+
+Supported file systems
+----------------------
+
+Any file system can be a read-only layer.  File systems must
+explicitly support whiteouts and fallthrus in order to be a read-write
+layer.  This patch set implements whiteouts for ext2, tmpfs, and
+jffs2.  We have tested ext2, tmpfs, and iso9660 as the read-only
+layer.
+
+Todo:
+ - Test corner cases of case-insensitive/oversensitive file systems
+
+NFS interaction
+===============
+
+NFS is currently not supported as either type of layer.  NFS as
+read-only layer requires support from the server to honor the
+read-only guarantee needed for the bottom layer.  To do this, the
+server needs to revoke access to clients requesting read-only file
+systems if the exported file system is remounted read-write or
+unmounted (during which arbitrary changes can occur).  Some recent
+discussion:
+
+http://markmail.org/message/3mkgnvo4pswxd7lp
+
+NFS as the read-write layer would require implementation of the
+->whiteout() and ->fallthru() methods.  DT_WHT directory entries are
+theoretically already supported.
+
+Also, technically the requirement for a readdir() cookie that is
+stable across reboots comes only from file systems exported via NFSv2:
+
+http://oss.oracle.com/pipermail/btrfs-devel/2008-January/000463.html
+
+Todo:
+
+- Guarantee really really read-only on NFS exports
+- Implement whiteout()/fallthru() for NFS
+
+Userland support
+================
+
+The mount command must support the "-o union" mount option and pass
+the corresponding MS_UNION flag to the kerel.  A util-linux git
+tree with union mount support is here:
+
+git://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/utils/util-linux-ng/val/util-linux-ng.git
+
+File system utilities must support whiteouts and fallthrus.  An
+e2fsprogs git tree with union mount support is here:
+
+git://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/fs/ext2/val/e2fsprogs.git
+
+Currently, whiteout directory entries are not returned to userland.
+While the directory type for whiteouts, DT_WHT, has been defined for
+many years, very little userland code handles them.  Userland will
+never see fallthru directory entries.
+
+Known non-POSIX behaviors
+-------------------------
+
+- Any writing system call (unlink()/chmod()/etc.) can return ENOSPC or EIO
+
+  Most programs are not tested and don't work well under conditions of
+  ENOSPC.  The solution is to add more disk space.
+
+- Link count may be wrong for files on bottom layer with > 1 link count
+
+  A file may have more than one hard link to it.  When a file with
+  multiple hard links is copied up, any other hard links pointing to
+  the same inode will remain unchanged.  If the file is looked up via
+  one of the hard links on the read-only layer, it will have the
+  original link count (which is off by one at this point).  An
+  example:
+
+  /bin/link1 -> inode 100
+  /etc/link2 -> inode 100
+
+  inode 100 will have link count 2.
+
+  # echo "blah" > /bin/link1
+
+  Now /bin/link1 will be copied up to the topmost layer.  But
+  /etc/link2 will still point to the original inode 100, and its link
+  count will still be 2.
+
+- Link count on directories will be wrong before readdir() (fixable)
+- File copyup is the logical equivalent of an update via copy +
+  rename().  Any existing open file descriptors will continue to refer
+  to the read-only copy on the bottom layer and will not see any
+  changes that occur after the copy-up.
+- rename() of directory may fail with EXDEV
+- inode number in d_ino of struct dirent will be wrong for fallthrus
+- fchmod()/fchown()/futimensat()/fsetattr() fail on O_RDONLY fds
+
+Status
+======
+
+The current union mounts implementation is feature-complete on local
+file systems and passes an extensive union mounts test suite,
+available in the union mounts Usermode Linux-based development kit:
+
+http://valerieaurora.org/union/union_mount_devkit.tar.gz
+
+The whiteout code has had some non-trivial level of review and
+testing, but the much the code has had no external review or testing
+outside the authors' machines.
+
+The latest version is available at:
+
+git://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/val/linux-2.6.git
+
+Check the union mounts web page for the name of the latest branch:
+
+http://valerieaurora.org/union/
+
+Todo:
+
+- Run more tests (e.g., XFS test suite)
+- Get review from VFS maintainers
+
+Non-features
+------------
+
+Features we do not currently plan to support in union mounts:
+
+Online upgrade: E.g., installing software on a file system NFS
+exported to clients while the clients are still up and running.
+Allowing the read-only bottom layer of a union mount to change
+invalidates our locking strategy.
+
+Recursive copying of directories: E.g., implementing rename() across
+layers for directories.  Doing an in-kernel copy of a single file is
+bad enough.  Recursively copying a directory is a big no-no.
+
+Read-only top layer: The readdir() strategy fundamentally requires the
+ability to create persistent directory entries on the top layer file
+system (which may be tmpfs).  Numerous alternatives (including
+in-kernel or in-application caching) exist and are compatible with
+union mounts with its writing-readdir() implementation disabled.
+Creating a readdir() cookie that is stable across multiple readdir()s
+requires one of:
+
+- Write to stable storage (e.g., fallthru dentries)
+- Non-evictable kernel memory cache (doesn't handle NFS server reboot)
+- Per-application caching by glibc readdir()
+
+Often these features are supported by other unioning file systems or
+by other versions of union mounts.
+
+Contributing to union mounts
+============================
+
+The union mounts web page is here:
+
+http://valerieaurora.org/union/
+
+It links to:
+
+ - All git repositories
+ - Documentation
+ - An entire self-contained UML-based dev kit with README, etc.
+
+The best mailing list for discussing union mounts is:
+
+linux-fsdevel@vger.kernel.org
+
+http://vger.kernel.org/vger-lists.html#linux-fsdevel
+
+Thank you for reading!
-- 
1.6.3.3

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